梁天监中,为武陵王国侍郎,直秘阁知画事,历右军将军、吴兴太守。苦学成才,长于写真,并擅画佛像、龙、鹰,多作卷轴画和壁画。成语“画龙点睛”的故事即出自于有关他的传说,记载他在金陵一乘寺用讲求明暗、烘托的“退晕法”画“凸凹花”,有立体感,可知他已接受了外来的绘画技法,“笔才一二、像已应焉”,很像现在的速写,被称为“疏体”。今有唐人梁令瓒临摹的《五星二十八宿真形图》传世,现已流往日本,但这幅画的用笔和记载并不相同他还善于雕塑,有“张家样”之称。
张僧繇,吴中(今江苏省苏州市)人,一说吴兴(今浙江省湖州市)人,南朝画家。生卒年不详,主要活动于6世纪上半叶。梁武帝天监年间,(502~519)曾任武陵王国侍郎,以后又任直秘书阁知画事、右军将军、吴兴太守等职。
张僧繇以善画佛道著称,亦兼善画人物、肖像、花鸟、走兽、山水等。他在江南的不少寺院中绘制了大量壁画,并曾奉命给当时各国诸王绘制肖像,能收到“对之如画”的效果。他的“画龙点睛”传说颇为脍炙人口。
张僧繇从事绘画创作,构思敏捷,工作勤奋,数十年中,手不释笔。在技法上,能独辟蹊径,广收博取,曾将晋代女书法家卫铄《笔阵图》中的书法用笔方法融入绘画,使其更富于表现力。他的艺术手法简练,富于变化,创造了一种“笔才一二,像已应焉”的画法,与唐代的吴道子一同被后世推为疏体的代表,与以顾恺之、陆探微为代表的密体各擅千秋之誉。
他同时又善于吸收和消化外来艺术的表现手法,据记载,他曾在建康(今江苏省南京市)一乘寺用天竺(今印度)传入的凹凸画法创作壁画,所绘物象,远观具有立体感,近视则平,因此该寺又被人称为凹凸寺。
张僧繇于佛像人物用功最深,形成自己的风格,人称“张家样”。他画人物,能做到朝衣野服,今古不失,“殊方夷夏,皆参其妙”,能从被画对象的特定身份、时代民族等方面着眼,成功地画出其各自不同的形象特征和风貌。
张僧繇的绘画艺术对后世有着极大的影响,后人将他与顾恺之、陆探微并列为六朝三大家。
张僧繇擅作人物故事画及宗教画,时人称为超越前人的画家。梁武帝好佛,凡装饰佛寺,多命他画壁。所绘佛像,自成样式,被称为“张家样”,为雕塑者所楷模。亦精肖像,并作风俗画,兼工画龙,有画龙点睛,破壁飞去的传说。 他曾在建康一乘寺门上用天竺(古印度)画法以朱色及青绿色画“凸凹花”,有立体感。姚最《续画品录》中说:“善图塔庙,超越群工。”张彦远家曾藏有张僧繇的《定光如来像》,并亲眼看到过他的《维摩诘》、《菩萨》等作品。张僧繇生平勤奋,《续画品录》说他“俾昼作夜,未曾厌怠,惟公及私,手不释笔,但数纪之内,无须臾之闲。”足见他业精于勤的可贵精神。在色彩上,吸取了外来影响。
据《建康实录》所载:“一乘寺,梁邵陵王纶造,寺门遗画凸凹花,称张僧繇手迹。其花乃天竺遗法,朱及青绿所造,远望眼晕如凹凸,近视即平,世咸异之,乃名凹凸寺云。”据传他又创造了一种不用轮廓线的“没骨”法,全用色彩画成,改变了顾陆以来的瘦削型的形象,创造出比较丰腴的典型,画人“面短而艳”。张怀瓘评语“象人之美,张(僧繇)得其肉,陆(探微)得其骨,顾(恺之)得其神。”张僧繇的“疏体”画法,至隋唐而兴盛起来。后人论其作画用笔多依书法,点曳斫拂,如钩戟利剑,点画时有缺落而形象具备,一变东晋顾桤之、南朝宋陆探微连绵循环的“密体”画法。
后人将其画法与唐吴道子并称为“疏体”。子善果、儒童,均擅绘宗教画。
张僧繇的作品有《五星二十八宿神形图》、《梁武帝像》、《汉武射蛟图》、《吴王格武图》、《行道天王图》、《清溪宫水怪图》、《摩纳仙人图》等,分别着录于《宣和画谱》、《历代名画记》、《贞观公私画史》。传世作品有《五星二十八宿神形图》,现藏于日本大坂市立美术馆。
顾、陆及以前的中国人物画表现都是通过线条来完成,线条的完美是画面成功的唯一保障,这种状况到张僧繇时逐渐发生了变化,线条是画面完成的重要因素,但不起决定作用。画家已不满足于仅仅通过“连绵不断”的周密线条所达到的“精利润媚”效果,而是要创造性地采用新的方法。《历代名画记》卷二载张僧繇潜心揣摩卫夫人书法,“点曳斫拂”依卫夫人《笔阵图》,“一点一画,别是一巧,钩戟利剑森森然”。张僧繇引书法用笔中的“点、曳、斫、拂”等方法入画,这大大丰富了中国画的技法,同时也给画面带来了新的形式。“张、吴(道子)之妙,笔才一二,象已应焉。离披点画,时见缺落,此虽笔不周而意周也。”为与顾、陆紧劲绵密的一笔画相区分,张僧繇的这种画法被称作“疏体”。从此,一种新的双向论画规范建立了,它是对以前绘画原则的丰富与拓展:“若知画有疏密二体,方可议乎画”,这种新原则、新规范的确立,张僧繇功不可没。 [4]
张僧繇对绘画的另一大贡献是吸收天竺(今印度)佛画中的“凹凸花”技法。“(大同三年)置一乘寺,西北去县六里……寺门遍画凹凸花,代称张僧繇手迹,其花乃天竺遗法,朱及青绿所成,远望眼晕如凹凸,就视极平,世咸异之,乃名凹凸寺”。所谓凹凸画法,就是现在所说的明暗法、透视法,这在中国本土绘画中是没有的,这种方法对于形体的空间塑造有很大帮助,能使画面具有立体感,收到逼真的效果。
天竺的凹凸画法传入,与印度佛教在汉末进入中国,至梁佛法大兴有关。佛教兴盛,同时输入的佛经图像被大量转释、翻摹。张僧繇作为一个高超的佛画家很快便注意到了天竺绘画这一神妙之处,而加以吸收,从而为中国人物画的发展增添了奇光异彩。《宣和画谱》卷《张僧繇调》:“僧繇画,释氏为多,盖武帝时崇尚释氏,故僧繇之画,往往从一时之好。” [4]
张僧繇所画佛像“面短而艳”的“张家样”式,是与其他人物画大家进行区分的明显标志。在此以前张怀瓘就认为:“张得其肉,陆得其骨,顾得其神”。“得其肉”即指僧繇之画,人物形体丰腴美艳,这种形象的出现与整个社会的审美风尚转变密切相关。“张家样”对后世影响很大,梁以后,张的风格成为二百多年间的主流画风。据《历代名画记》卷二《论师资传授南北时代》记载,隋唐很多著名画家都追随张僧繇,被称为百代画圣的吴道子,也一直被公认为师自张僧繇。《宣和画谱》卷《道释一》载,唐阎立本也是远师张僧繇,“立本尝至荆州,视僧繇画,曰:‘定虚得名耳!’明日又往,曰:‘犹是近代佳手。’明日又往,曰:‘名下定无虚士。’坐卧观之,留宿其下,十日不能去,是犹欧阳询之见索靖碑也。”
张僧繇的绘画真迹,已无从探知。唐代梁令瓒临摹他的《五星二十八宿神形图卷》倒还流传在世(在日本)。不过从画面上看。张僧繇的画貌并不明显,张氏绘画的很多精妙技艺,像点曳斫拂、简笔、凹凸法都无从辨识,或许是因为临摹者未能得其真迹拓写所致。只是画神人之体态、面目、衣饰倒还有僧繇“诡状殊形”、“奇形异貌、殊方夷夏,皆参其妙”的特色
以张僧繇为代表的“面短而艳”人物造像风格,在齐梁间逐渐取代以顾、陆为代表的“秀骨清像”风格,到南朝后期已盛行于大江南北。但从美术史的角度考察,这仍是一个形成的基础期,真正的繁荣昌盛,在艺术上达到顶峰当在唐代。丰满艳丽、雍容华贵的泱泱大唐风范才是这一风格的成熟形态。是否可以说,没有张僧繇“面短而艳”的人物造像风格的奠定,就不可能达到唐朝雍容大度、丰满健康、蓬勃向上的人物造像顶峰。顾陆相去已远,张僧繇是对隋唐影响最大的画家。
其中所传达的审美判断,正是时代审美特征在绘画上的具体表述,不应当轻率地将它们视为无稽之谈。张僧繇所处的时代,正是中国绘画体系完善的时代,也是印度佛教艺术在中国广为流传的时代,人们要以民族本土的艺术精神去接受和改造外来的艺术样式,要进一步发展民族绘画,在这样的时代氛围中,任何一个有成就的大艺术家,都不可能不完成这一时代所赋予的艺术创作使命。张僧繇正是在这两方而都作出了突出贡献的代表,他继承了顾恺之所提出的“传神论”,他把“阿堵传神”的具体理论用在了一切绘画形象的创造中。
如果说顾恺之在强调“阿堵传神”时还主要局限于人物神态的表达上,而张僧繇则把这一特定的理论发展到了对艺术形象的创造上,对于一种民族文化中“人心营构之象”的龙,他也能通过生动而高超的描绘,使之产生了生命,使之能在“画龙点睛”之后“破壁而飞”。
另一方面,张僧繇在吸收外来佛画或改造外来佛画上也作出了较大的成就。根据画史记载,张僧繇是一个极其勤奋的画家,他对待绘画创作达到了昼夜不息、手不释笔的地步。他又有高超的绘画技巧与状物传神的能力,梁武帝曾派遣他为请王子画像,其画能使梁武帝“览之若面”而慰其思子之心。著名美术史家张彦远也说他“笔才一二,而像已应焉”。因此,他在接受改造外来佛画时能大胆落笔一采用新法。他曾在南京一乘寺,用外来佛画的画法绘出有立体效果的所谓“凹凸花”,使观看的人能从远处看有凹凸起伏的感觉,而“近视即平”,让当时的善男信女们感到惊异新奇。他还敢将孔子像与佛像并列着画到天皇寺内,让中国圣贤进入佛门圣地,满足了民族心理对外来文化认同的平衡。同时,他在形象的创造中广为接受佛画题材,古今人物、山川草木、神灵怪异、外方风物等等,他都能绘声绘色,创造出各种新奇画面。在用笔上,张僧繇坚持中国画的传统,将中国书法中的各种用笔借用到绘画创作之中。如果说顾消之在创造“描”法时有意识地摈弃了书法中的笔法,那么,张僧繇在发展“描”法的同时则有意识地吸取了书法中的笔法。
西晋时期,中国出了个有名的书法家卫夫人,她是书圣王羲之的老师,曾写过一篇著名的书法理论著作《笔阵图》,其中分析了书法中不同的笔法。张僧繇在绘画创作中仔细研究了这部著作,点、曳、斫、拂等笔法,均依卫夫人《笔阵图》的要求,一点一画,别是一巧。这样,又使得新奇的形象能在有民族特色的技巧之中获得更广泛的认同。由于他有了这些成就,故而他的画受到了上下一致的赞赏。张僧繇所处之世,正是佛教广为流传并逐渐完成中国化历程的关键时期,官导民倡,使得佛教宗派林立,梁武帝又崇佛成癖,他修饰佛寺,多命张僧繇主持。
在这一特定的历史背景下,张僧繇的画能最广泛地受到各方面、各阶层的赞赏,使他的画成为一种时代文化的表率得到广泛的认可,这是不足为奇的。由于时代远久,可确指为张僧繇所作的传世作品已不复存在了,流传于日本的一幅宋代人摹本《五星二十八宿真形图》,有不少学者认为其原本可能取自于张僧繇的佛画范本。实际上,在中国许多古代石窟壁画中,那些来自南北朝时期的各类典型形象,都隐藏着张僧溢的绘画影子,受到了他的影响,他所绘制的佛画中,宫女面短而艳,为天人相,武士须发如神,这类典型形象在许多唐代壁画中仍是最主要的形象之一。后人把张僧繇也尊为“画家四祖”之一,所谓画家四祖,是指东晋时期的著名画家顾恺之与他的学生陆探微,南朝画家张僧繇及唐代画家吴道子。在四祖中,张僧繇是一个承上启下的关键人物。历代文献中,著录了他所画的23处寺庙壁画遗迹,也记载了他那日稀的传世画著及与日俱增的深远影响。唐代最著名的雕塑家杨惠之与画圣吴道子,都直接继承了他的风格。唐代有歌谣;“道子画,惠之塑,传得僧砾神笔路”中肯地道出了这一点。张僧繇以他那画龙点睛的神笔,永远在中华民族的文化史册中占据着光荣的一席。
张僧繇,南北朝时前梁吴地人。天监年间,官为武陵王国将军吴兴太守。
梁武帝修饰佛寺时,多次让张僧繇给这些佛寺绘画。当时,梁武帝的几位王子都封地在外。武帝特别想念他们,派张僧繇前往几位王子的封地绘画他们的仪容、形体,梁武帝看到几位王子的画像就象见了他们的面一样。江陵有个天皇寺。是齐明帝时建造的,里面设有柏堂。张僧繇在柏堂里画上卢那舍和孔子等十位哲人的画像,明帝责怪他,问:"佛门内怎么能画孔子的像?"张僧繇回答说:"以后还当仰仗这位孔圣人呢。"待到后周消灭佛教的影响时,焚烧天下寺庙,佛塔,唯独柏堂殿因为画有孔圣人的画像而没有被拆毁。张僧繇在金陵安乐寺内画了四条龙,不点眼睛。每次都说:"若点上眼睛,龙就会腾空飞去。"有人认为他这是荒唐的妄想,就请他给龙点眼睛。张僧繇点了两条龙的眼睛后,不多一会儿,电闪雷鸣,击穿墙壁,这两条龙穿壁驾云彩飞上天去。未点眼睛的那两条龙还在那儿。初时,吴人曹不兴画青溪龙,张僧繇看了后没有看上眼。于是,他在龙泉亭上画了许多青溪龙,而将曹不兴的《青溪龙》画藏在秘阁中,使得这幅画在当时未有引起人们的重视。到了梁武帝太清年间,雷击龙泉亭,将这秘阁的墙震塌,露出曹不兴的这幅《青溪龙》画,人们看了后才知道这幅画是神妙的上品之作。张僧繇又曾画过《天竺二胡僧图》。因为河南王侯景举兵叛乱,在战乱中画中两僧被拆散。后来,其中一个胡僧像被唐朝右常侍陆坚所收藏。陆坚病重时,梦见一个胡僧告诉他:"我有个同伴,离散了多年,如今他在洛阳李家,你要是能找到他,将我们俩放在一起,我们当用佛门法力帮助你。"陆坚用钱到胡僧告诉他的洛阳李家,购买另一个胡僧的画像,真的买到了。过了不久,陆坚的病果然痊愈了。刘长卿写了一篇文章记述了这件事情。对于这张画的其它神灵感应,在这里就不一一转述了。
又:润州兴国寺,苦于鸠鸽等野雀栖在房梁上,它们拉下的粪便玷污了佛象。张僧繇在东面墙壁上画一只苍鹰,在西面墙壁上画一只隼鹞,都侧头向檐外睨视。从此,鸠鸽等鸟雀再不敢到屋梁上来啦。
The aesthetic judgments conveyed by them are precisely the specific expression of the aesthetic characteristics of the times in painting, and they should not be regarded as nonsense rashly. Zhang Senghu lived in an era when Chinese painting system was perfect and Indian Buddhist art was widely spread in China. People should accept and reform foreign art styles with the spirit of national indigenous art, and further develop national painting. In such an era atmosphere, any one of the great achievements. Artists can not fail to fulfill the mission of artistic creation entrusted to them by this era. Zhang Sengxi is the representative who has made outstanding contributions on both sides. He inherited Gu Kai's theory of "biography". He applied the concrete theory of "Adu biography" to the creation of all painting images.
If Gu Kaizhi's emphasis on "Adu's vivid expression" is mainly confined to the expression of character's attitude, while Zhang Sengqi develops this particular theory to the creation of artistic image. He can also vividly and skillfully depict the dragon of "the image of the human mind" in a national culture and make it produce life. To enable it to "break the wall and fly" after "drawing the finishing touches".
On the other hand, Zhang Senghu has also made great achievements in absorbing or reforming foreign Buddhist paintings. According to the record of painting history, Zhang Sengyu is a very diligent painter. He treats painting creations day and night, and keeps writing. He also has superb painting skills and the ability to convey spirits. Emperor Liang Wudi once sent him to invite the prince to paint. His paintings can make Emperor Liang Wudi "look like the face" and comfort his mind. Zhang Yanyuan, a well-known art historian, also said that he "has only one or two pens, but seems to have what he should have done". Therefore, when he accepted the transformation of foreign Buddhist paintings, he boldly adopted a new method. He once painted the so-called "concave and convex flowers" with the painting method of foreign Buddhist paintings at Yicheng Temple in Nanjing, which made the viewers feel concave and convex from a distance, while "nearsightedness is flat" amazed the good men and women at that time. He also dared to draw Confucius and Buddha statues side by side in the Temple of the Emperor, so that Chinese sages could enter the sacred places of Buddhism and meet the balance of national psychology with foreign cultural identity. At the same time, in the creation of images, he widely accepted the subject of Buddhist paintings, ancient and modern characters, mountains and plants, strange gods, foreign scenery and so on. He can draw sound and color, and create a variety of novel pictures. In the use of pens, Zhang Sengyu adhered to the tradition of Chinese painting and borrowed various kinds of pens from Chinese calligraphy into painting creation. If Gu Xiaozhi consciously abandoned the brushwork in calligraphy when he created the "descriptive" method, then Zhang Sengqi consciously absorbed the brushwork in calligraphy while developing the "descriptive" method.
During the Western Jin Dynasty, a famous calligrapher, Mrs. Wei, was a teacher of Wang Xizhi, a calligrapher. She once wrote a famous theoretical book of calligraphy, Bi Matrix Picture, which analyzed the different styles of calligraphy. Zhang Sengxuan carefully studied this work in his painting creation. His strokes of dot, drag, Chao and brush all conform to the requirements of Mrs. Wei's Painting Matrix. It is not coincidental to draw one by one. In this way, the novel image can be more widely recognized among the skills with national characteristics. As a result of these achievements, his paintings have been unanimously appreciated. Zhang Senghu lived in a critical period in which Buddhism was widely spread and gradually completed the process of sinicization. His official guidance and advocacy led to the establishment of Buddhist sects. Emperor Liang Wudi also worshipped Buddhism. He decorated Buddhist temples and ordered Zhang Senghu to preside over them.
Under this particular historical background, it is not surprising that Zhang Sengxu's paintings can be most widely appreciated by all walks of life and classes, making his paintings a model of contemporary culture widely recognized. Because of the long history of the times, it can be said that the handed down works for Zhang Seng-kuo have ceased to exist. A copy of "Five Stars, Twenty-Eight Habitats True Map" of the Song Dynasty, which was circulated in Japan, is believed by many scholars to have originally taken from Zhang Seng-kuo's model Buddhist paintings. In fact, in many ancient grotto murals in China, all kinds of typical images from the Northern and Southern Dynasties hide Zhang Sengyi's painting shadow, which was influenced by him. In his Buddhist paintings, the palace maids have short and bright faces, they are the faces of heaven and man, and the warriors have to be fascinated. These typical images are still in many Tang murals. One of the most important images. Later generations honored Zhang Sengxi as one of the "Four Painters". The so-called "Four Painters" refers to Gu Kaizhi, a famous painter in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, and Lu Xuanwei, a student. Zhang Sengxi, a painter in the Southern Dynasty, and Wu Daozi, a painter in the Tang Dynasty. Among the four ancestors, Zhang Sengyu was a key figure connecting the preceding and the following. In the literature of the past dynasties, 23 monastery murals he painted were recorded, as well as his rare paintings from generation to generation and their increasing far-reaching influence. Yang Huizhi, the most famous sculptor in the Tang Dynasty, and Wu Daozi, the painter, both directly inherited his style. There were ballads in the Tang Dynasty, "Tao Zi painting, Hui Zhi sculpture, spread monk gravel God's way of writing" tells this point pertinently. Zhang Senghu always occupies a glorious place in the cultural history of the Chinese nation with his masterpiece.
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